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History of Philosophy
China
by Turner, William (S.T.D.)
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When, about 2000 years B.C., the Chinese first appeared in the light of
history, they already possessed social, political, and religious
institutions and a material and intellectual civilization of a high
order. It was not, however, until the sixth century B.C. that the
sacred books were collected and arranged, although some of them,
especially the Y-king, were assigned by tradition to the learned
princes and kings who, long before the historical period, had invented
the art of writing. The sacred or authoritative books were:
I. The Five Classics, namely, the Y-king, or Book of
Changes (divination); the Shu-king, or Book of History; the
Shi-king , or Book of Poetry; the Le-ke, or Record of
Rites; and the Chun-tsew, Spring and Autumn, a Book of Annals,
composed by Confucius.
II. The Four Books, namely, Lun-yu, or Conversations of
the Master; Chun-yung, or Doctrine of the Mean; Ta-heo,
or Great Learning; and Meng-tse, or Teachings of Mencius.
The Five Classics were collected, arranged, and edited by Confucius
(with the exception of the last, which was written by him), and it is
impossible to say to what extent the editor introduced into the text
doctrines and opinions of his own. The Four Books were composed by
disciples of Confucius.
Before the time of Confucius there existed a national or state religion
in which the principal objects of worship were heaven, and
spirits of various kinds, especially the spirits of dead
ancestors. Heaven (Thian) is the supreme lord
(Shang-ti), the highest object of worship. [10] The deity
carries on its work
silently and simply, yet inexorably, in the order and succession of
natural phenomena, in the rain and the sunshine, the heat and the cold,
etc. With this natural order are closely connected the social,
political, and moral orders of the world; or rather, all order is
essentially one, and perfection and prosperity in moral life and in the
state depend on maintaining the order which is not only heaven's first
law, but heaven itself. With the worship of heaven was connected the
worship of spirits (Shan). These are omnipresent throughout
nature; they are not, however, addressed as individuals, but as a body
or aggregation of individuals, as, for example, celestial spirits,
terrestrial spirits, and ancestral spirits. The last are the object of
private as distinct from official worship. The Chinese, always inclined
to look towards the past rather than towards the future, thought less
of personal immortality in the life after death than of the
continuation of the family life by which the actions of the individual
were reflected back and made to ennoble a whole of line ancestors.
[10] According to Mgr. De Harlez, "there is every reason for affirming
that Shang-ti is not identical with Heaven, is not Heaven animized, but
a personal being, the supreme Spirit governing the world from the
height of the empyrean," New World (December, 1893), Vol. II, p.
652.
The qualities which characterized the religious thought of from the
beginning -- its eminently practical nature, the complete absence of
speculation, and the almost complete exclusion of mythological elements
-- reappear in the writings of the great religious teacher
Confucius (Kong-tse, 551-478 B.C.). Confucius was no
innovator; he appeared, rather, as the collector of the sacred
literature of the past and the restorer of the old order. He inculcated
the strict observance of the traditional forms of worship, discouraged
speculation in matters theological, and while he taught the supreme
importance of moral duties, he grounded all his moral precepts on the
general order of the world and the long-established tradition of the
Chinese people. He insisted on man's political and domestic duties and
emphasized especially the importance of filial piety.
Lao-tse, a Contemporary of Confucius (born about 604 B.C.), and
author of the Tao-te-king, introduced into China the first
system of speculative thought, the philosophy of Tao (Reason,
Way), which many scholars consider to be of Hindu origin.[11] Lao-tse
did not, however, attempt to overthrow the traditional ideals of his
countrymen, and, while the importance which he attaches to speculation
places him in sharp contrast with Confucius, the doctrines of the two
great teachers have many points in common. For Tao, the
fundamental concept of the Tao-te-king, does not mean Reason in
the abstract, but Nature, or rather, the Way, -- the order of the
world, the impersonal method which all men must observe if they are to
attain goodness and success. Ultimately, then, both Lao-tse and
Confucius teach that conduct is to be guided by a knowledge of the
unalterable, discriminating, intelligent order of heaven and earth; but
while Confucius refers his disciples to the study of the writings and
institutions of antiquity, Lao-tse refers them to the speculative
contemplation of Tao: the former encourages study, the latter
advocates contemplation, as a means of acquiring a knowledge of the
eternal order on which morality depends. Hence, the tendency of Taoism
towards quietism and self-abnegation. "Recompense injury with
kindness," said Lao-tse; to which Confucius is said to have answered,
"Recompense kindness with kindness, but recompense injury with
justice."
[11] Cf. Douglas, op. cit., p. 219.
To the fifth century B.C. belong Yang-tse and Nih-tse (or
Mak). The former preached a kind of Epicureanism: man should
enjoy the present and cheerfully accept death when it comes; virtue is
but a name; good reputation is a shadow; the sacrifice of self is a
delusion. The latter maintained that one should love all men equally,
that the practice of universal love is a greater benefit to the state
than the study of antiquity and the preservation of ancient
customs. [12]
[12] Cf. De La Saussaye, Manual, p. 367.
Lih-tse and Chwang-tse appeared during the fifth and the
first half of the fourth centuries B.C. as representatives of Taoism.
They were opposed by the distinguished exponent of Confucianism,
Meng-tse or Mencius (371-288). In his dialogues, which were
collected in seven books by his disciples, he gives a more compact
exposition of Confucianism than that found in the isolated sayings of
the master. He insists on filial piety, on political virtue, and on the
proper observance of religious and other ceremonial rites. He reduces
the cardinal virtues to four: Wisdom, Humanity, Justice, and
Propriety.
Cf. translations of Chinese Classics by Dr. Legge, in
Sacred Books of the East, Vols. III, XVI, XXVII, XXVIII. For
bibliography, cf. De la Saussaye, Lehrbuch, I, 50.
Consult also R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism (London,
1879).
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